Monday, March 29, 2010
Thursday, November 12, 2009
African Americans were active in fencing during the 1930s, when Young Men’s Christian Associations (YMCAs) and Young Women’s Christian Associations (YWCAs) provided basic instruction in the sport. But racial discrimination practiced by the AFLA severely curtailed their opportunities to compete at the local and national levels. A case in point is the experience of Violet Barker, who learned to fence at the Harlem YMCA under the tutelage of Alex Hern, a Jew who was teaching fencing in settlement and neighborhood houses throughout
By the 1950s African Americans were gaining acceptance by the AFLA and were winning fencing titles in intercollegiate meets. In the following decades several blacks captured prestigious national honors. Sophronia Pierce Stent was captain of the New York University team; in 1951 she became the first black woman to gain admission into the AFLA Collegiate champions include Bruce Davis of Wayne State University (Detroit); Tyrone Simmons of the University of Detroit; Peter Lewison of the City University of New York; and Peter Westbrook, Michael Lofton, and Ruth White of New York University. In 1969 White became the first black athlete to win a national fencing title, when she won the under-nineteen crown in foil. She was trained by several Hungarian coaches, including Bela de Csajaghy. Subsequent African Americans who have won national championships include Lewison, Westbrook, Lofton, Uriah Jones, Burt Freeman, Ed Ballinger, Terrence Lasker, Mark Smith, Erin Smart, Bob Cottingham, Nikki Tomlinson Franke, and Sharon Monplaisir, among others. Westbrook, who is half Japanese and half black, also took home a bronze medal in the saber at the 1984 Olympic Games in
Finally, since the 1930’s American fencing has exhibited an increasing multiethnic and multiracial character, as Hispanic and Asian athletes have become prominent as administrators and champions. The deCapriles brothers were men of great education, status, and wealth from
Tuesday, October 13, 2009
VICENTE GUERRERO (1783-1831)
O
ne of the leaders of the independence movement and second president of Mexico, Vicente Guerrero was born into a poor peasant family in Tixtla, in what is today the state of Guerrero. A Mestizo with a strong African background, he had a little education and dedicated himself to farming the land. He started his military career under Hermenegildo Galeana in 1810.
As a captain, he was commissioned by José María Morelos to attack Taxco. He continued under Morelos’ command and fought in southern Puebla.
After the defeat in Puruarán, Michoacán, he was assigned to fight in the south, where he made his way with only one assistant. Guerrero and his peasant army, equipped only with clubs, fought against a vice-regal officer at the head of 700 troops. Guerrero defeated him, took 400 prisoners, and seized a large quantity of weapons. In all of the battles in which he took part, he showed extraordinary bravery; sometimes he received point-blank shots, and he fought with cold steel.
After Morelos’ death in late 1815, the rebel movement was weakened, and just a few leaders continued fighting. Guerrero was one of them. A number of leaders began asking for pardons. Viceroy Apodaca persuaded Guerrero’s father to try to convince his son to surrender, but the rebel refused, giving his oft-quoted answer, “My country comes first.”
With just a few troops, Vicente Guerrero continued fighting from his rebel base in the mountainous region of the state which now bears his name. When Iturbide put his plans to achieve the independence in action, he went southwards to fight Guerrero and Alquisiras, but he failed in his attempt, and the royalist forces were worse of it.
On January 10, 1821, Guerrero received an invitation from Iturbide to give a conference on the independence movement. They met in Acatempan, and the rebel leader agreed to fight with his former enemies and to accept a subordinate post.
Although Guerrero acknowledged Iturbide as the emperor, he and Nicolás Bravo soon turned against him. On January 23, in Almolongo, Guerrero fought the imperial forces commanded by Epitacio Sánchez, who died in action, although he was able to defeat his rivals.
Guerrero had been a division general since 1821. When Iturbide was overthrown, Guerrero became a member of the Supreme Executive Power from April 1 to October 10, 1824, until General Guadalupe Victoria became president of Mexico.
Vicente Guerrero was head of the Yorkean (popular) party, and he started to appear as the party’s frontrunner. When Nicolás Bravo, head of the Scottish party, took up arms against Guadalupe Victoria’s government, in 1828, Guerrero fought against him in Tulancingo.
Guerrero became a presidential candidate that same year. Although he had numerous followers, the state legislative bodies gave the presidency to Manuel Gómez Pedraza, who had influenced the elections from within the War Ministry, by an indirect vote of 11 to 9. A protest arose, the Parián was plundered, and Gómez Pedraza’s election was declared invalid.
Guerrero became President on April 1, 1829; General Anastasio Bustamante was appointed as vice-president.
Spanish forces led by General Isidro Barradas invaded Mexico, but were defeated. Bustamante, who was watching Guerrero from Xalapa, proclaimed the Plan of Xalapa, which refused to recognize Guerrero’s regime.
Vicente Guerrero gave up the presidency on December 16, 1829, when Congress declared him unfit to govern the country. He went south and started a new civil war. Armijo was sent to fight him, but Armijo was defeated and died in Texaca.
The war continued through all 1830. Bustamante’s government, through his minister José Antonio Facio, arranged for the Genoese sailor Francisco Picaluga to kill Guerrero. In January 1831, the Genoese invited Vicente Guerrero to lunch on his ship El Colombo. Once on board, Picaluga took him prisoner and sailed for Huatulco, on the Oaxaca coast.
Picaluga delivered his prisoner to Captain Miguel González, who took Guerrero to Oaxaca. A court-martial sentenced Guerrero to death, and he was executed in Villa de Cuilapan, on February 14, 1831.
A Mexican state now bears Vicente Guerrero’s name in his honor.
Alessandro de' Medici
FIRST REIGNING DUKE OF FLORENCE (1510-1537)
Despite the many portraits of this 16th century Italian Renaissance figure, his African heritage is rarely, if ever, mentioned.
TO STUDENTS of color discrimination European history offers no more astonishing figure than Alessandro de' Medici, "The Moor," first reigning Duke of Florence. His mother Anna was a fine and robust black peasant of Colle Vecchio, Italy, in the employ of Alfonsina Orsini, a near relative of Pope Clement VII, while his father is very generally said to be the Pope himself, who was then Cardinal de' Medici.
As Duke of Florence, Alessandro, after the death of Pope Clement, became the head of one of the most illustrious families in European history--a family that furnished a long roll of statesmen and patrons of art, as well as three popes, three kings of France, three queens, and a mother of one of England's kings.
Allesandro's nominal father, Lorenzo II, died while he was still young and left the dukedom to his brother Pope Clement VII, the same who had a dispute with Henry VIII over the divorce of Catherine of Aragon. Living in the Medici Palace with Alessandro were his cousin Ippolito and his supposed sister Catherine-the Catherine of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day. They, with the Pope, were the last of the cider branch of the family. Of the four, all were illegitimate, except Catherine, and perhaps Clement. But being born out of wedlock in those days, especially in the homes of the great, was not a serious handicap. As in the Orient, many of the noblest names were carried on by a capable bastard who had proved himself superior to the legitimate offspring.
Alessandro made his debut into politics at a time critical for the fortunes of his family. The Pope, its head, was having considerable difficulty trying to preserve the orthodox faith, and with it his hold on European politics. Not only was he at odds with the Florentines, but also with Charles V, the Napoleon of his time, the ruler of Spain and part of Italy and France, all of Austria, Germany, and the Netherlands.
The quarrel between the Pope and the Florentines broke into open revolt. An attack was made on the palace and Cardinal Cortina, the guardian of the three children, fled, taking Alessandro and Ippolito. The people held Catherine as a hostage.
To make matters worse, Charles V defeated the Pope's ally, Francis I of France, and marching on Rome, sacked it. The Pope fled and locked himself up in the fortress of San Angelo.
The Pope, seeing that his only hope was to make peace with Charles V, promised him his entire support. If Charles dominated the bodies of men, the Pope would dominate their souls. Accordingly, a treaty was made between them, one of whose provisions was that the emperor should restore the Pope's family to power in Florence. To bind the agreement a match was arranged between Alessandro and the emperor's daughter Margaret. She was nine, Alessandro, twenty.
In fulfillment of his promise, the emperor sent an army under the Prince of Orange against Florence. The Florentines, among them Michelangelo, fought desperately for a year, but finally surrendered. They were heavily fined and had to yield to the government that the Pope and the emperor imposed upon them. This was a heavy blow to the Florentines who had always prided themselves on their independence. Their city, now made into practically an absolute monarchy, was given to Alessandro to rule with the title of duke.
The young duke began his reign well. Cecchereghi, Italian historian, credits him with wit and wisdom, a fine sense of justice, and "judgments that would have done credit to a Solomon." He restored to the Florentines most of their former liberties. But numbers of them were not content with a monarchy. Besides, a good many were still bitter over the war.
Into this stirring drama now steps a fourth character. Mention has already been made of him Ippolito de' Medici.
Ippolito felt that he and not Alessandro should have been made head of the family. He claimed not only priority of age, but nobler birth, his mother having been a noblewoman while Alessandro's was a servant, perhaps even a slave. He became Alessandro's worst foe and headed the faction against him.
Varillas says:
When Ippolito understood that Pope Clement had decided that Alessandro was to be made heir to the riches and greatness of the House of Medici, a great change took place in him. He was seized with immense anger and grief, as it seemed to him that, being older and a nearer relative of the Pope and better endowed by nature that so rich an inheritance and so brilliant a marriage should be his; either not knowing, or refusing to believe, the secret rumors, that Alessandro was the son of Clement.
The Pope made Ippolito a cardinal, but this so little contented him that he disdained the high honor, preferring Hungarian dress to the red hat.
An interesting light is thrown on the quarrel by Ambassador Soriani, who was an eyewitness. He says:
The Duke Alessandro shows that he has a good mind and that he has the tact to accommodate himself better to the nature and will of the Pope than the Cardinal Ippolito de Medici. Therefore, His Holiness has made it evident to me that he loves the Duke more than the Cardinal, and expects very much more from him. Many times in conversation with me, he has told me that he intends to make the Duke head of the Medici family and to let him govern Florence as his ancestors have done.
The most Rev. Cardinal Ippolito de Medici was twenty years old on March 23, 1531. He has a good mind and has given some little time to study, so that in comparison with the other cardinals, he cannot be considered as ignorant. He is indeed of vivacious, one might almost say, of a restless nature, but perhaps it comes from his youth.
He is very envious of the Duke because it seems to him that the Pope did him a great injustice in putting the Duke at the head of the government of Florence. He thinks himself of a better social crass than the Duke whose mother is a slave. The quarrel between the two gives great displeasure to His Holiness who is disgusted with the Cardinal for disturbing his plans.
This question of the respective characters and merits of the duke and of Ippolito is still a subject of dispute among historians. By some Alessandro is painted as a just and able young man; by others he is held to be a creature who would have disgraced even "the worst epochs of Roman villainy."
Ippolito readily found a number of influential Florentines to support his claims. He continued his plotting until he was forced to leave Florence for Rome, where he found refuge, and where his home became a center for all those who fled from Duke Alessandro. Several attempts were made on the duke's life, after which he disarmed friend and foe. He garrisoned the towns and built the fortress of San Giovanni to dominate the city. Many of his enemies he caused to be stripped of their wealth and sent into exile. At last Ippolito decided to make a direct appeal to the emperor Charles V, who was on his way to attack the great African pirate, Barbarossa. But Ippolito never reached him; he died on the way, poisoned, it is said, by the emissaries of Alessandro.
Alessandro's troubles multiplied. To make matters worse, the Pope died, thus depriving him of his ablest counselor. Alessandro, in order to pacify the people, began to give them fetes after the manner of the old Roman emperors. This only helped to give him the reputation of a libertine-a reputation that was not unjustified. It was a dissolute age and Alessandro was a part of it, but his enemies magnified those faults that would have been condoned in another ruler. When his mother died, quite naturally, it seems, he was accused of starving her to death to get her out of the way. At last the enemies of the duke took their case to the emperor. The latter summoned Alessandro before him, whereupon Alessandro defended himself so ably that he rose higher in the imperial favor. Charles not only promised him his full support but decided to hasten his daughter's marriage to him.
In June, I536, the emperor visited Florence in great state, and on the 16th of that month the marriage was celebrated in gorgeous style in the old palace of the Medicis in the presence of the kings and queens of the leading countries of Europe.
This marriage, by the way, helps to throw some light on the better side of Alessandro's character. Charles V was just, devout, and much beloved. Later he voluntarily renounced his vast empire to follow a life of solitary meditation and Christian devotion. Is it logical to believe that he would have given his daughter to a monster such as Alessandro has been painted, especially after Clement died?
That Alessandro was a despot there is no doubt whatever, though some of the blame must be placed on his adviser, Francesco Guicciardini, an able historian of Machiavellian tendencies. Enters now the villain, Lorenzino, better known as Lorenzaccio (The Wicked). Lorenzino, who has been described as "half-poet, half-madman," and who had been threatened by the Pope with hanging if ever he showed himself in Rome, for having out of sheer wantonness, knocked off the heads of some precious statues, felt that since Alessandro was illegitimate he, as the eldest offspring of the younger branch of the family, was the rightful heir. He began to plot. To further his intrigues he cultivated the good graces of the duke. This was not difficult as he had qualities that pleased the duke, especially his capacity for vice. Both soon became boon companions, going about the streets dressed as minstrels and serenading the Florentines. Sometimes both would ride on the same horse through the town.
When the enemies of Alessandro learned of Lorenzino's real feelings toward the duke, they decided to use him as the instrument of their vengeance and promised him the dukedom if Alessandro were put out of the way.
Lorenzino readily fell in with this plan. Among his friends was a soldier named Michaele who was nicknamed Scoronconcolo because of his wild and turbulent disposition. A giant in physique, this ruffian was devoted body and soul to Lorenzino.
One day when Lorenzino said to him, "I want you to kill the man I hate most on earth," Michaele readily agreed. Accordingly, Lorenzino invited the duke to his home, promising him a rendezvous there with a beautiful Venetian, already married, of whom Alessandro was enamored: Signora Ginori.
Alessandro left the palace masked, accompanied by his two faithful guards, Giacomo and Bobo. Arriving at Lorenzaccio's gate, he sent the men to wait for him at a wine shop and slipped in unseen. At the door he was received by Lorcnzaccio. All the servants had been dismissed. Hidden within was Michaele. The duke gave his coat to Lorenzaccio. The latter urged him also to lay his sword aside, and taking it, hid it in another room. He then left, saying he was going in search of the lady and would return soon. Before leaving, he signaled Michaele that the coast was clear for the attack on the duke.
The duke, left alone, went over to the fire to await Signora Ginori, but feeling drowsy, threw himself on a couch and was soon fast asleep. Hours passed, and Lorenzaccio returned. To his chagrin he found the duke still alive. Michaele had lost his nerve.
Deciding to lose no more time, Lorenzaccio crept into the room, sword in hand. He plunged the weapon into the back of the sleeping ruler. But the wound was not fatal. Alessandro, leaping to his feet, shouted, "Traitor," "Assassin," and seized his attacker in a desperate grip.
Both went to the floor. The duke bit Lorenzaccio's thumb so hard that he yelled with pain. Michaele rushed to his aid, and lunged at the duke, but in the tangle of bodies struck Lorenzaccio instead, wounding him on the cheek and nose.
This caused Lorenzaccio to yell the louder, whereupon Michaele, drawing his dagger, plunged in into the duke's side and twisted it all the way around. As the duke fell, Michaele drew his sword across his throat, almost severing the duke's head.
The two hastened to remove the blood from their hands. It was then that Lorenzaccio made a chance remark that apprised Michaele of the rank of his victim, which so terrified Michaele that he rushed from the house and confessed. As to Lorenzaccio, he lost his nerve also, and mounting a horse, galloped out of the city.
Alessandro's bodyguards, tired of waiting, at last burst into Lorenzaccio's home and found the body. They hastened to tell the prime minister, Cardinal Cibo, who, fearing the effect of the news on th populace, kept it secret and buried the duke privately.
A council was at once summoned. Alessandro's son Julian was named as his successor, but as he was only five years old, he was set aside in favor of Cosimo, a member of the younger branch and a near relative of Lorenzaccio. One of Cosimo's first acts was to seek vengeance on Lorenzaccio, who, safe in France, declared that he had killed Alessandro because of an insult the latter had offered to his sister Laodomia. Later he assumed a Brutus-like pose and alleged that he had saved his country from a tyrant.
For eleven years he eluded the emissaries of Cosimo, but finally overtaken in Venice, he was stabbed to death.
Margaret, Alessandro's widow, married the Duke of Parma and became a powerful figure in European politics. She was made regent of the Netherlands by her brother, King Philip of Spain.
The tomb into which Alessandro had been hurriedly thrust was that of his nominal father, the Duke of Urbino, under Michelangelo's famous statue, "Il Penseroso." For a long time this was disputed by historians. To settle this question, the Italian government ordered the tomb opened in 1875.
Charles Heath Wilson, who was present, said that the two dukes were lying head to foot, that they were embalmed, and that Alessandro's body was clothed in an embroidered shirt. He also said that the latter was easily recognized by his hair, his mulatto cast of features, and the traces of wounds about his head and body Alessandro might have gone far but for his untimely death. Charles V was planning to make him general-in-chief of his armies in Italy.
Joachim Murat
RENOWNED CAVALRY LEADER OF NAPOLEON AND KING OF NAPLES (1767-1815)
JOACHIM MURAT, who assumed the name of Joachim Napoleon, and was later King of Naples, came from the Department of Lot, in the Auvergne, France, a region known for the Negroid strain in its inhabitants, many of whom are descended from the Moors who settled in that region after they had been driven out of Spain. It is estimated that more than a million of these people of African ancestry migrated to that region. This is the same part of France from which came Bernadotte, King of Sweden, and Pierre Laval, twice Premier of France, both of whom were dark-skinned and were commonly said to be of Moorish ancestry. In fact, Murat himself claimed descent from a Moorish king, and Frederic Masson, noted writer on Napoleon's cavalry, said it was commonly believed that he was of that ancestry.
The most striking proof of Murat's Negro strain comes from Laura, Duchess d'Abrantés, famous writer of the times, who knew Murat intimately and was moreover well acquainted with evidences of Negro strain. She had lived in Portugal with her husband Marshal Junot, French ambassador, at a period soon after the Negro slaves there had been freed and there was still an abundance of mulattoes. She says of Murat, "There was a great deal of the Negro in his face. His nose, it is true, was not flat, but his lips were thick. This nose, although straight, lacked distinction, thus giving him in keeping with the rest of his features, at least the appearance of a half-breed." She uses the word métis, which, in addition to meaning "half-breed," is often used in France for "mulatto." Indeed it is the same thing. Next to Napoleon himself Murat was the most spectacular figure of the Napoleonic era. Indeed, but for him there might have been no Napoleon of such greatness. Napoleon thought so much of him that he gave him his favorite sister, Marie Caroline, in marriage.
Arriving in Paris, the young Murat found work as a pot washer. Then he joined the army and found such favor with Napoleon that the latter made him one of his aides-de-camp. In Egypt, where he served directly under the command of General Dumas, a mulatto born in Haiti, he distinguished himself and was made general of a division. Devoted body and soul to Napoleon, after they returned to France he urged Napoleon to make himself dictator. When Napoleon hesitated, he drew his sword and declared he would not sheathe it until Napoleon was dictator of France. A few days later, with sixty of his guards, he burst into the National Convention in Paris, as Cromwell had done in the English Parliament, dominated it, and kept his word to make Napoleon supreme. "Good citizens," he said to the 500 members, "the Convention is dissolved," and he drove them all out. In reward, Napoleon appointed him the next most powerful man in France, and married his youngest sister, Marie Caroline, later Queen Caroline, to him. He also made him Governor of Paris and later for his victories over the Germans made him, successively, a Marshal of the Empire, Grand Duke of Berg and Cleves, and Grand Admiral of France. Finally when the Bourbons were ousted, he made him ruler of Naples, one of the richest countries of southern Europe. But the two were later to be enemies. During the disastrous campaign in Russia where he was in command of the cavalry, Murat deserted his post to return to Naples, upon which Napoleon sent him a most insulting letter. Thereafter, he Previous worked as hard to pull down Napoleon, as he had to build him up.
The loss of Murat's services contributed much to Napoleon's final downfall, an admission that Napoleon himself later made. His presence at Waterloo, Napoleon said, would have inspired the French and discouraged the English. In the hundred or so battles in which he had fought, Murat had been so dashing, so courageous, and so victorious, that he was invested with invincibility by his men. He could be seen always in the forefront of the fight, conspicuous in his gorgeous uniform and snow-white plumes.
But it was not Murat's fault that he was not at Waterloo. A month before he had returned to France. The Allies, once having succeeded in isolating him from Napoleon, turned against him and in face of the strong coalition he was forced to flee. In France he offered his services to Napoleon, who contemptuously refused them.
After the capture of Napoleon, he went to Corsica and sailed from there with an expedition to recover his kingdom. A storm scattered his ships and he was forced ashore at Pizzo, Italy, with only thirty men. Captured, he was court-martialed five days later and shot. Murat had four sons. One of them, Napoleon, came to the United States and married a grandniece of George Washington. Another, Lucien, married a Baltimore society woman. He returned to France when Napoleon III came to the throne, and was recognized as a prince of royal blood.
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